(2011). Because of simplicity in physiology microbes have been exploited for. J. Researchers are eager to find a more environment friendly and non-toxic substitute because these synthetic dyes have a negative impact on the environment and people's health. Natl. 26, 503508. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.032, Philip, S., Keshavarz, T., and Roy, I. Satish, K. R., Kanmani, P., Yuvaraj, N., Paari, K. A., Pattukumar, V., and Arul, V. (2013). The major application of glucoamylase is the saccharification of partially processed starch/dextrin to glucose, which is an essential substrate for numerous fermentation processes and a range of food and beverage industries. Pharm. Nature 517, 455459. In addition, lactic acid fermentation processes have recently received more attention because of the growing demand for new biomaterials, such as biodegradable products and biocompatible polylactics (Gao et al., 2011). In this case, proteins function as carriers for capsular polysaccharides, which induce T-cell dependent antibody responses and B-cell differentiation in plasma cells and long-term memory. Science 219, 632637. doi: 10.1007/s00289-008-0987-6, Belda, I., Ruiz, J., Navascus, E., Marquina, D., and Santos, A. 18, 423430. These biosensors showed high specificity for the detection of heavy metals (Kim K. R. et al., 2016). Bioplastics also have the potential to lead to the rise, within civil construction, of materials that have low incorporated energy, contributing to energy efficiency (Ivanov and Stabnikov, 2016). doi: 10.3126/ijasbt.v4i2.15103, Abdel-Gawad, K. M., Hifney, A. F., Fawzy, M. A., and Gomaa, M. (2017). Biodegr. Genetic engineering - arisen from work of microbial genetics and molecular biology. J. Ind. Human papillomavirus and HPV vaccines: a review. 5, 396. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.7432.1, Cook, P. E., McMeniman, C. J., and ONeill, S. L. (2008). Chojnacka, A., Szczsny, P., Baszczyk, M. K., Zielenkiewicz, U., Detman, A., Salamon, A., et al. The versatility of these microbes has enhanced the study and application of them in biotechnology, industry, and medical field. Recent developments such as the discovery of functional xylose isomerases (Kuyper et al., 2005) resulted in the creation of new yeasts capable of fermenting 5-carbon (C5) sugars, as well as 6-carbon (C6) sugars. Genetics of Pseudomonas. Bioresour. 57, 295303. J. (2009). Further manipulations of these species are expected to create strains capable of producing a wide variety of non-native commercial products. These devices include dialysis membranes and scaffolds for tissue engineering (Svensson et al., 2005). The species Cupriavidus necator is one of those responding more favorably to the conditions for industrial production. But left untreated, the symptoms can become quite severe and debilitating. Microbial production of 1,3-propanediol. (2016). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. In some cases the production results from an apparent accident in nature where an organism manufactures many thousands of times the amount necessary for its own metabolism. Future challenges such as finding new ways to combat disease, reduce pollution and feed the world's population. 14, 137. Biomaterials 24, 23392349. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, 3rd Edn. Enzyme immobilization: the quest for optimum performance. In cytoplasmic incompatibility, fertilization of females not infected with Wolbachia by infected males results in embryonic mortality. Individ. If the miRNA is completely complementary to the target gene, then the mRNA can be cleaved. How Bacillus thuringiensis has evolved specific toxins to colonize the insect world. Kaylas physician immediately prescribed a full course of the antibiotic doxycycline. Reverse genetics uses the opposite approach, starting with a specific DNA sequence and attempting to determine what phenotype it produces. By contrast, toxoid vaccines stimulate the immune response by using inactivated pathogen toxins as antigens. Generation of influenza A viruses as live but replication-incompetent virus vaccines. Genetic engineering has provided a way to create new pharmaceutical products called recombinant DNA pharmaceuticals. Microb. (2015). Microbial genomics: A new tool to increase food quality and safety. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Mosquitoes containing the Wolbachia wMelPop-CLA strain showed an approximately 50% reduction of the survival of females compared to mosquitoes without the strain (McMeniman et al., 2009). Comp. B. 18, 377389. Appl. Paris 250, 17271729. Adv. Another aspect of environmental technological microbiology is advances in the knowledge and use of the symbiotic relationship between plants and mycorrhizal fungi as a strategy to increase plant biomass or increase the yields of products of agricultural or pharmacological interest (e.g., Boyer et al., 2016; Gabriele et al., 2016; Khl et al., 2016). (2008). Marker expression generates signals that may indicate the presence and concentration of analytes (biosensors). 57, 790804. doi: 10.1093/jhmas/48.4.371, Nielsen, D. R., Yoon, S. H., Yuan, C. J., and Prather, K. L. (2010). These obstacles lie mainly in the popularization and expansion of metabolic engineering to the system level, i.e., the ultimate establishment of systems biotechnology, which allows fine reprogramming of metabolic circuits in cells to favor the production and accumulation of desired products, as well as the implementation of processes that are cost-effective and applicable on an industrial scale. doi: 10.1002/biot.200900279, Nishat, S., and Andreana, P. R. (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.04.044, Gal, J. Vaccine 15, 785787. These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. J. Appl. doi: 10.1111/pce.12600, Krause, L., Diaz, N. N., Edwards, R. A., Gartemann, K.-H., Krmeke, H., Neuweger, H., et al. (2011). Because Kaylas symptoms were persistent and serious enough to interfere with daily activities, Kaylas physician decided to order some laboratory tests. Effect of thermal pretreatment on the biogas production and microbial communities balance during anaerobic digestion of urban and industrial waste activated sludge. 67, 217228. Sci. Drug Resist. J. Invertebr. Biol. FIGURE 1. Compounds involved in stress tolerance in yeasts, such as proline and trehalose, are promising for the development of resistant strains (Takagi and Shima, 2015). doi: 10.1002/ecy.1514. There are multiple ways to manipulate a microorganism in order to increase maximum product yields. Metab. The siRNA-RISC complex binds to mRNA and cleaves it. Microbiol. The integrated processes for wastewater treatment based on the principle of microbial fuel cells: a review. Radecka, I. K., Guozhan, J., Hill, D. J., and Kowalczuk, M. M. (2016). Curr. doi: 10.1046/j.1472-765X.2002.01118.x, Popham, H. J. R., Nusawardani, T., and Bonning, B. C. (2016). Many multi-antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacilli also fit the description of superbugs, such as P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, E. coli, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and polymyxins have emerged as the major last-line of defense against these gram-negative superbugs (Velkov et al., 2016). Trop. Several sequences are present in all bacteria with slight variation, can be used in the identification of different bacteria. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2016.1153447, Oliveira, R. S., Rocha, I., Ma, Y., Vostka, M., and Freitas, H. (2016b). Health 79, 320328. Microbiol. Similar evidence was found in the Zagros Mountains of northern Mesopotamia, dating to 54005000 BC (McGovern et al., 1996). Immunother. The participation of the microorganisms in this case is indirect. Vaccine 12, 195199. The miRNA-RISC complex then binds to mRNA, inhibiting translation. Front. Biol. Transl. J. Entomol. Similarly, the centennial microbial synthesis of glycerol was impacted by the inability to compete with chemical synthesis from petrochemical feedstocks. doi: 10.9755/ejfa.2015.05.309, Walder, F., Boller, T., Wiemken, A., and Courty, P.-E. (2016). Fungal morphology and metabolite production in submerged mycelia processes. An important family of biomaterials includes the bioplastics. Non-specific effects of standard measles vaccine at 4.5 and 9 months of age on childhood mortality: randomised controlled trial. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.02.049, Tag, K., Riedel, K., Bauer, H. J., Hanke, G., Baronian, K. H. R., and Kunze, G. (2007). CordycepsA traditional Chinese medicine and another fungal therapeutic biofactory? Top. (1988). doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2010.09.005, Suksong, W., Kongjan, P., Prasertsan, P., Imai, T., and O-Thong, S. (2016). Smith, S. E., and Read, D. (2008). Bioresour. However, the current accelerated pace of new food production is due to the rapid incorporation of biotechnological techniques that allow the rapid identification of new molecules and microorganisms or even the genetic improvement of known species. Microb. Insights into the phylogeny and coding potential of microbial dark matter. Extracellular production of tellurium nanoparticles by the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus. Biosens. 64, 415428. Microbial genetics plays a crucial role in field of molecular and cell biology and profound applications in medicine, food, agriculture and pharmaceutical industries. doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-9555-5-11, Holm-Nielsen, J. Ahmad, S., Abbas, S. S., Prakash, R., Alam, A., and Husain, M. A. Entomol. Oil Industry 6. Thumbnail: A group of Genetically modified GloFish fluorescent fish. Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, diagnostics, forensics, and industrial manufacturing. It is also used as leather, textile and paper. Stiffness xanthan hydrogels: synthesis, swelling characteristics and controlled release properties. Obtaining chemicals such as organic acids via microbial activity is very promising, especially if it is thought to occur from renewable carbon sources. Cell Host Microbe 8, 334343. Sens. By contrast, the products of heterologous proteins obtained from S. cerevisiae comprise hormones (insulin, insulin analogs, and glucagon), vaccines (hepatitis B virus surface antigen), and virus-like particles (VLPs) (Ferrer-Miralles et al., 2009). Sci. Genes from pathogenic bacteria, such as Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae, were recently introduced in E. coli to allow the efficient synthesis of 1,3-PDO from waste glycerol (Przystaowska et al., 2015). Cell Host Microbe 21, 314315. Chapter 7 - Microbial Biochemistry ; Chapter 8 - Microbial Metabolism ; Chapter 9 - Microbial Growth ; Chapter 10 - Biochemistry of the Genome ; Chapter 11 - Mechanisms of Microbial Genetics ; Chapter 12 - Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics ; Chapter 13 - Control of Microbial Growth ; Chapter 14 - Antimicrobial Drugs doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004973, Sharma, R., Chisti, Y., and Banerjee, U. C. (2001). Teixobactin is capable of eliminating MRSA, and bacteria are believed not to be susceptible to developing resistance to teixobactin, which targets the lipids essential for the maintenance of the bacterial cell wall (Borghesi and Stronati, 2015). This enzyme applied in various industries including food, biofuel detergents and animal feed. 34, 755781. Genetics 184, 917. This page titled 12.3: Whole Genome Methods and Industrial Applications is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. Nanomedicine 11, 23872398. Technol. Samples were found in different archeological sites dating to 20001200 BC (Samuel, 1996). Past and future of non-Saccharomyces yeasts: from spoilage microorganisms to biotechnological tools for improving wine aroma complexity. doi: 10.1016/S0926-3373(00)00168-5, Durbin, A. P. (2016). Single cell proteins, in The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, eds B. Caballero, P. Finglas, and F. Toldr (Oxford: Academic Press), 790794. FDA (1982). Robinson, D., and Medlock, N. (2005). 9, 25052523. Trends Food Sci. 70, 41404145. 17, 193199. Toxicity evaluation of e-juice and its soluble aerosols generated by electronic cigarettes using recombinant bioluminescent bacteria responsive to specific cellular damages. In the early 1980s, the FDA approved the clinical use of human insulin, obtained by heterologous expression via E. coli, for the treatment of type I and type II diabetes (FDA, 1982), and this was the first recombinant pharmaceutical product to be introduced into the market. MAbs 8, 99112. (2010). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-30472-4_4, Banik, R. M., Mayank Prakash, R., and Upadhyay, S. N. (2008). (2016). The microbial production of acetone and butanol, efficiently performed by the genus Clostridium, was one of the first large-scale industrial fermentation processes to gain global importance, but this production has been losing ground to chemical synthesis. (2014). Eng. 63, 593601. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aab2373, Oliveira, R. S., Ma, Y., Rocha, I., Carvalho, M. F., Vostka, M., and Freitas, H. (2016a). Kary Mullis and others contributors found that this enzyme could be used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA fragments (Chien et al., 1976; Saiki et al., 1988). Water Res. (2016). A Dengue Vaccine. However, Technological Microbiology has obstacles to overcome, and these obstacles extend beyond the continuous search for unconventional microbial species with valuable metabolic properties. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. There's a new discipline in town: genomics, a new field of science that analyzes and compares the complete genome (genetic material of an organism) of organisms or a large number of genes in a simultaneous fashion. 38, 15311547. For miRNA, only one of the two strands binds to RISC. Vaccine 24, 367373. Crop Prot. These data have also allowed the discovery of new or modified molecules used to obtain improved products, new products, or services. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1439-2054(20000301)276:1, Mohiddin, A., Lasim, A. M., and Zuharah, W. F. (2016). The Endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia induces resistance to Dengue virus in Aedes aegypti. 9, 15981611. Rev. 26, 227238. Res. Plant Signal. The metagenome of a biogas-producing microbial community of a production-scale biogas plant fermenter analysed by the 454-pyrosequencing technology. It also involves the transmission of hereditary characters in microbes. In addition, the technology for immobilization of these enzymes in prefabricated supports or polymer matrices improves their stability, activity, and selectivity, favoring their application and reuse for long periods in industrial reactors (Mateo et al., 2007; Sheldon, 2007). Gene therapy 5. Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics notes - Some of the key applications of microbial genetics - Studocu Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics notes modern applications of microbial genetics notes microbial genetics has wide range of modern applications in Skip to document Ask an Expert Sign inRegister Sign inRegister Home 96, 4767. doi: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2006.08.001, Tiquia, S. M., Wan, H. C., and Tam, N. F. Y. aeschynomene can induce symptoms of anthracnose in Aeschynomene virginica, thus controlling this legume, which is a rice and soybean weed. In addition to the use of E. coli in biosensors, other microorganisms have already been evaluated. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2008.09.006, Rillig, M. C., Sosa-Hernndez, M. A., Roy, J., Aguilar-Trigueros, C. A., Vlyi, K., and Lehmann, A. 71, 27892792. Nature 381, 480481. However, Technological Microbiology is considered to have begun in the 1980s, following a decision made by the United States Supreme Court that allowed the patenting of a Pseudomonas putida variant that is effective in the organic digestion of compounds found in crude oil spills (Robinson and Medlock, 2005). The metabolic engineering of molecules from microorganisms has been stimulated mainly by the need for new functional biomaterials in emerging drugs (nanostructured or not) (Vzquez and Villaverde, 2013). Lett. The increasing market demand for biodegradable polymers has also stimulated the prospection of microorganisms that act in the synthesis of these compounds. doi: 10.4161/hv.26109, Pifferi, C., Berthet, N., and Renaudet, O. How is genomics different from traditional genetics? Live vaccine against measles, mumps, and rubella and the risk of hospital admissions for nontargeted infections. Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, diagnostics, forensics, and industrial manufacturing. doi: 10.1126/science.aah5869, Sicard, D., and Legras, J.-L. (2011). The study of proteomics is an extension of genomics that allows scientists to study the entire complement of proteins in an organism, called the proteome. 1: A thermal cycler (left) is used during a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Pharmaceutics 8, 7. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics8010007, Nizet, V. (2015). Recently, Ling et al. Microbes are ideally suited for combined biochemical and genetic studies and have been successful in providing information on the genetic code and the regulation of gene activity. Carbohydr. Bagdasarian, M., and Timmis, K. N. (1982). Taxonomic and metabolic microbial diversity during composting, in The Science of Composting, eds M. Bertoldi, P. Sequi, B. Lemmes, and T. Papi (Dordrecht: Springer), 149161. Bior. A solution can . Microbial biosensors. Ann. Genetic improvement, as well as the genetic manipulation of cells and the heterologous expression of genes, is expected to help increase the enzymatic biosynthesis in microorganisms of interest, or even to contribute to the development of microorganism biofactories for important enzymes not only for food or industry but also for environmental applications, thereby expanding alternatives for the elimination of the wastes that have historically accumulated in soils and watercourses. Currently, research efforts have focused on integrating the treatment of solid wastes or even wastewater with the use of microbial fuel cells (MFC), i.e., microbial cells that use electrons donated by low-value organic substrates, contained in the waste, to generate energy (Xu et al., 2016). The HPV (human papilloma virus) vaccine is another example of a newly developed vaccine that has been widely used in many countries. The presence of these enzymes in activated sludge and in other aerobic degradation processes is important for the continuous removal of the fat layers formed on the surface of aerated tanks to allow oxygen transport (Hasan et al., 2006). Correspondingly, commercial interest has risen for applications where microbial communities make important contributions. Genetics :- Science of heredity study of what genes are, how they carry info, how they are replicated, and how expression of the info determines characteristics of the organism. 26, 17881799. 6, 343357. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-27951-0-9, Cohen, S. N., Chang, A. C., Boyer, H. W., and Helling, R. B. 3, 1219. 63, 28022813. doi: 10.1038/nature14486. JAMA 311, 826835. These microbial lipases are being employed in the hydrolysis of milk fat, improving the aromatization of dairy products. These decisions must be made while considering the entire technological framework currently available, including transgenics and recombinant DNA, such that incentives exist so that microbiology research can be converted into products and services for society (Figure 5). Unusual biology across a group comprising more than 15% of domain Bacteria. Plotkin, S. A., Orenstein, W. A., and Offit, P. A. Sci. This emerging field of bioinformatics can be used, among many other applications, for clues to treating diseases and understanding the workings of cells. Catal. If you wanted to study how two different cells in the body respond to an infection, what omics field would you apply? Microorganisms are the most biodiverse class, leading us to believe that the emergence and spread of new human and/or agricultural pathogens may shift from a current critical situation, aggravated by globalization, to a recurrent situation at various points in the future. J. Biotechnol. Microbial production of scent and flavour compounds. LWT Food Sci. 171, 17. 107, 111116. Genetic engineering provides an alternative method for improving microbial starter cultures. B., Al Seadi, T., and Oleskowicz-Popiel, P. (2009). 11:e1131372. The mutualistic interaction between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. doi: 10.1016/S0141-0229(99)00155-6. (2016). J. Eng. Re-evaluation of the life-cycle of the nematode-parasitic bacterium Pasteuria penetrans in root-knot nematodes. 25, 14211434. These include vaccines against Salmonella typhi and Neisseria meningitides (Keitel et al., 1994; King et al., 1996). The field of transcriptomics is the science of the entire collection of mRNA molecules produced by cells. Molecular microbial diversity of an anaerobic digestor as determined by small-subunit rDNA sequence analysis. doi: 10.1080/09593330.2015.1118559, Sauer, M. (2016). Acta 568, 200210. doi: 10.1515/jppr-2016-0004, Khan, M. A., Paul, B., Ahmad, W., Paul, S., Aggarwal, C., Khan, Z., et al. One such technology employs microorganisms, such as phages, yeasts, bacteria, and viruses, to display repertoires of single-chain variable-domain antibody fragments (ScFvs), antigen-binding fragments (Fab), or domain antibodies (Dabs) on their surfaces (Carter, 2006). (2017). Ultimately, molecular biology applications are expected to be a mainstay in the manufacture of chemicals, energy, medical, consumer products, agriculture and food, industry, cosmetics and environmental technologies. BMJ 341:c6469. Walsh, G. (2012). Technol. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.10.001, Accinelli, C., Abbas, H. K., Little, N. S., Kotowicz, J. K., Mencarelli, M., and Shier, W. T. (2016). doi: 10.1007/978-4-431-55248-2-2, Tatsumi, K., Wada, S., and Ichikawa, H. (1996). Rev. (www.glofish.com). Godon, J. J., Zumstein, E., Dabert, P., Habouzit, F., and Moletta, R. (1997). Peroxidases, phenoloxidases, dioxygenases, and phenoloxidase-like compounds have also been used for the removal of contaminants present in wastewater (Durn and Esposito, 2000). In this chapter, we will explore some of those tools, especially as they relate to applications in medicine and health care. 22, 2733. Biochimie 70, 559566. Health 79, 329337. 3, 2830. Rev. Microbiol. Leptospirillum ferrooxidans basead Fe 2+ sensor. Amylases obtained from cultures of Aspergillus niger (e.g., Omemu et al., 2005; Djekrif-Dakhmouche et al., 2006; Adejuwon et al., 2015) or Bacillus subtilis (e.g., Ploss et al., 2016; Salman et al., 2016), for example, have been used in place of chemical additives in the treatment of wheat flour (e.g., Bueno et al., 2016), improving the preparation of dough for baking and allowing the acquisition of pre-cooked foods. Polym. Nutr. Among the microorganisms that act in the biological control of pests, the most widely disseminated species are the fungi belonging to the genus Trichoderma. However, studies have shown that most of the microorganisms isolated from the reactors are still unexplored (e.g., Krause et al., 2008; Figure 2) and may be a source for new products and services in the future. Recent advances in microbial biotechnology can help further increase the use of microorganisms in the food industry. Sci. In addition, the BAC biofilm can also biodegrade the cyanotoxins and organic substances that can change the taste and odor of potable water (Brown and Lauderdale, 2006). doi: 10.1023/A:1005387016390, Rao, S. S., Gomez, P., Mascola, J. R., Dang, V., Krivulka, G. R., Yu, F., et al. Bioresour. doi: 10.1038/nri1837, Castelle, C. J., Wrighton, K. C., Thomas, B. C., Hug, L. A., Brown, C. T., Wilkins, M. J., et al. 109, 201208. In addition, food colorants should preferably be natural rather than synthetic compounds. Balc. Different biotechnological techniques used in the production of currently available vaccine types. (2010). Traditional covalent linkages between carbohydrates and carrier proteins have been used to increase immune responses to polysaccharide antigens (Nishat and Andreana, 2016), thereby obtaining conjugate vaccines. Opin. 4, 191197. Genetic exchange in Salmonella. (2013). 132:41686. doi: 10.1002/APP.41686, Pitisuttithum, P., and Bouckenooghe, A. The boom of antibiotic discovery occurred between 1950 and 1960. Analysis of microbial genomes has contributed to the development of new antibiotics, diagnostic tools, vaccines, medical treatments, and environmental cleanup techniques. Cost competitive second-generation ethanol production from hemicellulose in a Brazilian sugarcane biorefinery. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.10.001. Res. Adv. Xylanases are enzymes with biotechnological relevance in a number of fields, including food, feed, biofuel, and textile industries. Potentiometric microbial electrode. doi: 10.1002/adsc.200700082, Shin, H. J. Sci. A., and Segal, S. J. Among these are fields that study aspects of whole genomes, collectively referred to as whole-genome methods. Biomater. 27, 297306. Caterpillars and eggs of pests such as Spodoptera frugiperda can also be infected by baculovirus, thus reducing the agricultural losses caused by this caterpillar, especially in corn. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2008.02.025, Smith, H. O., and Nathans, D. (1973). Grape-pressings from northern Greece: the earliest wine in the Aegean? Several transgenic species expressing Bt protein crystals, such as tomato, tobacco, and corn, have been cultivated worldwide because they have been successful in preventing the spread of caterpillars, especially Lepidoptera (Khan et al., 2016). 214, 184191. For example, approximately 30% of commercially available recombinant proteins are currently produced in prokaryotic systems (Overton, 2014). A. (2016). Bio-Mineralisation 8. Classic methods of studying gene function involved searching for the genes responsible for a given phenotype. { "12.01:_Microbes_and_the_Tools_of_Genetic_Engineering" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.
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